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Description of Focal Species
Leopard
The leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) is the rarest species in the Ecoregion, celebrated in many local poems, fairytales, and songs. Widespread throughout the Caucasus a century ago, the big cat – last sighted in Dagestan and the Greater Caucasus in the 1980s – is now near extinction. Despite growing concern that the leopard has disappeared from the region altogether, recent investigations coordinated by WWF showed that about 35-40 animals still inhabit the Zangezur Range in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Nakhchyvan), the Talish Mountains, and northern Iran. A small population survives in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and Iori-Mingechaur Priority Conservation Area. The leopard is listed in the Red Data Books of Rare and Endangered Species (Red Book) in all the countries in the Ecoregion. The subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN C2a). National legislation warrants strict punishment for killing a leopard.
The main threats to the leopard are poaching and overhunting of ungulates (tur, bezoar goat, mouflon, wild boar, chamois, and roe deer) – the animal’s primary food base.
Scientists believe that over the long-term, a population of 100 leopards should be sustained in the Caucasus to ensure long-term survival of the species in the Ecoregion. Currently, there are no interregional strategies for leopard conservation. Cooperation among the six countries is required to restore the leopard to its native range and conserve remaining leopard habitat. As an umbrella species, the leopard facilitates conservation of other species that also depend on forest habitats in the leopard’s extended range.
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Striped Hyena
The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is on the verge of extinction in the Caucasus. The species is considered by IUCN as near threatened (NT), and listed in local Red Books. Striped hyenas live in plains ecosystems, including arid habitats and floodplain forests. The scavenger used to be widespread in the eastern Caucasus up to Tbilisi, but hyena numbers decreased drastically in the second half of the 20th century due to persecution by hunters and habitat loss to agriculture. In Georgia, from 1950 to 1970, only one to two individuals were recorded each year, mostly in remote gorges of the Vashlovani Strict Nature Reserve and in sanctuaries along the Iori River floodplain. People generally dislike hyenas due to their scavenger ways. Large bounties used to be offered for hyena skins. Hyenas often play dead when they are discovered, making them easy prey for humans. Now nearly extinct, only a few hyenas remain within a very small range in the southeastern Caucasus plains (in Azerbaijan and a small area of Georgia). Exact data on the number of hyenas left or the state of the population have not been collected. Measures need to be taken to involve local people in hyena conservation and strengthen regulations and fines for killing hyenas.
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Brown Bear
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a keystone species and top predator in the food chain in most habitats in the Caucasus. The brown bear can serve as an indicator species, reflecting the state of ecosystems and biodiversity as a whole. Protecting brown bears provides an umbrella for many other animals and the forest biome. Generally, the brown bear occupies mountain forests, but it also occurs in high mountain meadows and open plains woodlands. National legislation regulates hunting, but poaching is the main threat along with habitat loss. The Caucasian population of the brown bear has drastically declined in recent decades. In Georgia, for example, the population has decreased by a third in the past 10-15 years. While the brown bear is not included in the IUCN Red List, the total number in the Caucasus Ecoregion does not exceed 3,000 individuals, warranting protection measures. According to scientists, there are four subspecies of brown bear in the Ecoregion with complicated interrelations and overlapping ranges. Among these, two subspecies (U. a. syriacus and U. a. lasistanicus) are endangered and in need of immediate protection.
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West and East Caucasian Turs
There are two distinct species of Turs in the Caucasus Ecoregion – the West (Capra caucasica) and East (C. cylindricornis) Caucasian turs. Turs are endemic to the Greater Caucasus Range and therefore to the Ecoregion, and historically have had a very narrow range – inhabiting only the slopes of the Greater Caucasus Range. Capra caucasica is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN A1d+2cde) and C. cylindricornis as vulnerable (VU A1d+2de, C1).
Both species of tur are relatively large, with sturdy torsos. The two species are differentiated by their variation in horn shape. Turs live in the high mountains from 2,000 to 4,000 m above sea level. The agile climbers can jump up to three meters from a standing position and scramble down nearly vertical cliffs. Turs used to roam in herds of several hundred in the beginning of the 20th century. Now it is rare to see more than 10 to 20 animals at once. Humans are the turs’ main predator. The tur is an important source of meat for shepherds and people living in the mountains, and has recently become a popular trophy hunting species. Recent data suggests that there are around 3,500 to 4,000 West Caucasian turs and about 25,000 East Caucasian turs remaining. Uncontrolled hunting practices in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia could threaten the long-term sustainability of these tur populations. Quota levels and licensing procedures differ in each country and need to be harmonized to improve tur management.
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Caucasian Red Deer
The Caucasian subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus maral) is one of the most endangered species of wildlife in the South Caucasus. This subspecies is not listed in IUCN Red List. In Georgia two isolated populations of fewer than 90 deer remain in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park in the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain and around 150 deer are left in the Lagodekhi Strict Nature Reserve in the Greater Caucasus Range in eastern Georgia. Once outside of these reserves, protection of these locally rare animals cannot be ensured. Fewer than 600 red deer are left in Azerbaijan in strict nature reserves of the Greater Caucasus Range. Turkey and Iran also harbor small populations of this species. In Russia, several thousand red deer are found along the Greater Caucasus Range. Over the past few decades, deer populations have decreased, but the exact number of deer remaining is unknown. In Russia, red deer are legally hunted, while in the South Caucasus the species is legally protected. Throughout the Caucasus Ecoregion, poaching, habitat loss to pasturelands, and long-term isolation of red deer populations have caused deer numbers to go down, resulting in inbreeding in some populations. Measures need to be taken to reduce poaching, monitor deer population dynamics, and connect the isolated groups. Efforts are required to coordinate management practices for red deer in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia.
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Bezoar Goat
The bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus), or wild goat, is found only in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and in the southern portion of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. Bezoar goats roam in small herds of five to 10 animals, staying near cliffs in the forest belt and alpine areas where they feed on grasses and can quickly climb to safety from predators. Bezoar goats migrate to less snowy areas in winter. The bezoar goat is now endangered due to poaching and habitat loss to agriculture. The animal is unwary of people and settlements, and is therefore easily approached and killed. While populations of the bezoar goat have been preserved in parts of the Caucasus Ecoregion, the species has been driven to extinction in other areas of its former range. The bezoar goat has disappeared from the northern part of the Lesser Caucasus as a result of overhunting in the first part of the 20th century. The bezoar goat is now listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde) and in the Red Books of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia. Increased poaching due to the dire socio-economic situation in the region has resulted in the species’ decline. Poachers sell the dense, sharply-pointed horns as trophies.
Today, there are several highly isolated populations of bezoar goats in different regions. Around 1,000 bezoar goats live in Dagestan and about 3,000 in Armenia (Khosrov Strict Nature Reserve, southern Armenia) and the bordering part of Nakhchyvan (Azerbaijan). Small populations live in Georgia (300 individuals) on the border with Russia’s Dagestan. There are approximately 2,500 bezoar goats in the Turkish Caucasus and probably a comparable number of animals in northern Iran. Individual populations are separated by nearly 500 km. Steps need to be taken to increase protection of the bezoar goat and allow the exchange of genes between the isolated populations to reduce chances of inbreeding. Local people need to be included in conservation activities, since poaching is the major threat to the animal.
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Gmelin’s Mouflon
The rare Gmelin’s – or Armenian – mouflon (Ovis ammon gmelinii) is an endemic subspecies of wild sheep, the ancestral form of modern domestic sheep. The mouflon is agile at climbing steep mountain slopes. The animals prefer dry, open slopes in the mountain steppe zone. Numbers of Gmelin’s mouflon decreased steadily throughout the 20th century as a result of habitat loss and poaching, the effects of which are intensified in areas of ethnic conflicts. Today there are no more than several hundred of the animals left in southern Armenia and in the Nakhchyvan Autonomous Republic in Azerbaijan. This species is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde).
There are a few herds of mouflon on Mount Agri (Ararat) and in the Allahuekber Mountains in Turkey, as well as in some areas along the Turkish-Iranian border. Mouflons also remain in small numbers on the border between Iran and Azerbaijan (Nakhchyvan Republic) and in the Sabalan Mountains. Measures need to be taken to preserve mouflon habitat and increase protection of the animal.
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Caucasian Chamois
The Caucasian chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica) is one of the more remarkable mountain ungulates. This subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU C1). In the summer, chamois graze in forest and alpine areas, while in winter they remain in forests where there is less snow. More and more, the chamois has been forced into the alpine belt due to human development of lower mountain slopes. The range and population of the chamois in the Caucasus has decreased drastically over the past century. Although data on chamois numbers are scarce, it is thought that approximately 3,500 chamois remain in the Kavkazsky Strict Nature Reserve in Russia, and a much smaller population resides in the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain within Georgia and Turkey. The greatest threat to survival of the chamois comes from poaching and habitat lost for pastures. The populations are highly isolated due to habitat fragmentation, which could lead to inbreeding. The lack of research on the current status of the animal hinders conservation efforts. Some of the Caucasus countries have listed the chamois in their national Red Books, while others have not. Coordinated approaches to chamois conservation and synchronization of the species’ protected status among countries are necessary to save the animal from disappearance.
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Goitred Gazelle
The goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), or djeiran, is listed in the IUCN Red List as near threatened (NT) and in the Azerbaijan Red Book. The gazelle is found in steppe and semi-desert habitats and open juniper woodlands. Historically, the animal was found in the Araz (Araks) Valley in Armenia, and in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range. Today, the goitred gazelle remains only in the Kura Lowlands. A hundred years ago, 50-60,000 gazelles roamed the steppe, but by the end of the 1940s, only 5,000 remained in Azerbaijan. Pressured by poaching and the loss of steppe and semi-desert habitat to agricultural development in the Kura-Araz (Araks) Lowlands, the goitred gazelle population fell to catastrophic levels: in 1961, only 130 animals were left near the mouth of the Kura River. Conservation measures, including creation of the Byandovan Sanctuary in 1961 and the Shirvan Strict Nature Reserve in 1969, helped save the population from extinction in the South Caucasus. Gazelle numbers in the Shirvan protected areas (Shirvan National Park, Shirvan Strict nature Reserve and Byandovan Sanctuary) grew to more than 4,500 by 2003. A small population of 300 gazelles lives in the Korchay Sanctuary. But the resettlement of refugees from regions plagued with ethnic conflict to lands around Shirvan National Park has once again put the gazelle population at risk. Oil development in the area threatens the integrity of gazelle habitat. Furthermore, the gazelle population cannot disperse outside the territory of the protected areas (65,535 ha), because the land in the Kura-Araz (Araks) Lowlands has been completely altered by human development. Steps need to be taken to increase protection of gazelles in reserves, and the possibility of connecting the populations via a protected corridor should be explored.
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Pygmy Cormorant
In the Caucasus the pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus) is a nesting, migratory, and wintering species, preferring lowland freshwater and brackish habitats. The bird chooses open water areas with sizable trees nearby, fresh or brackish marshes with thick reed beds, open or slow-flowing water, and flooded fields where fish are easily caught. In the southern Transcaucasia, every lake or body of water covered with reeds has breeding populations of this species. Pygmy cormorants winter mainly in coastal lagoons, deltas, and riparian forests, but also in inland wetlands. The cormorant nests in large mixed colonies often with herons, ibises, and other birds. This is a globally threatened species, classified as near threatened (NT) by IUCN and by Birdlife International as vulnerable in Europe. The main threat is poaching, as local fishermen consider it to be competition to their fishing-based economies. The other major threats are drainage and habitat degradation of breeding and wintering habitats, including disruption of hydrological regimes.
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Imperial Eagle
The imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) is predominantly a lowland species, but has been pushed to higher altitudes by human pressures. In the Caucasus, breeding habitat for the eagle consists of mountain forests, hills, and areas along rivers up to 1,000 m above sea level, but also includes steppes, open landscapes, and agricultural areas. The eagle hunts in open areas and wetlands. The raptor builds nests in the tops of trees in deciduous or coniferous forests or in open landscapes. It has been documented that the birds will nest on specially-built artificial platforms. A variety of habitats are used during migration, while wetlands are the bird’s preferred habitat for winter. The eagle is found primarily in the southeastern part of the Ecoregion, in lowland forests along the Araz (Araks), Kura, Alazani, Iori, and Khrami rivers, and in lowlands and foothills westward to the eastern slopes of the Trialeti Ridge. The imperial eagle is classified as vulnerable at the global level by IUCN (VU C1) and endangered at the European level by BirdLife International. The total global population is estimated at 363 to 604 pairs. In Europe the eagle has suffered a rapid decline in recent decades, and the species is now extremely rare or extinct in many areas. The main threat to the imperial eagle is the disappearance of habitats due to deforestation of lowlands and foothills. Other major threats and limiting factors include poaching and human disturbance, nest robbing, illegal trade, and poisoning.
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Cinereous vulture
Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus), or Eurasian black vultures, feed on carrion and nest in loosely knit groups. Distance between nests can be as little as 200-300 m, but in some clusters, pairs are more than three kilometers apart. Distance between nests within colonies can vary, and may be determined by the availability of suitable nest trees. Alternatively, high nesting density may cause productivity to decline. Cinereous vultures prefer areas with pine, juniper, and oak. The cinereous vulture is classified by IUCN as near threatened (NT) globally. Its distribution extends from Spain in the west to Mongolia and Russia in the east, though the Spanish population is relatively isolated. In the Caucasus the species is found mostly in Azerbaijan, in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. Waste from the animal husbandry industry in this country provides abundant food for vultures. As with many other mountain species, the vulture occurs in lowlands in winter. In most places, the range and abundance of the cinereous vulture has declined, but the opposite trend has been observed in Spain. Where population declines have been noted, these are linked to indirect persecution (for example, poisoning) and alteration of nesting habitat.
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Caucasian Black Grouse
The Caucasian black grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi) inhabits areas above timberline in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains, usually at an elevation from 1,500 to 3,300 m above sea level and more often from 2,200 to 2,600 m. Presence of shrub vegetation to provide shelters for the bird is critical. In the Western Caucasus, the black grouse is usually found among Caucasian alpine rose (Rhododendron caucasicus) thickets, although if this type of vegetation is not available, other shelters (mostly shrubs) can be used. The birds keep in groups, and especially high concentrations are observed in spring at display grounds. The distribution is continuous in the Greater Caucasus, where the population numbers several tens of thousands, but distribution is more patchy in nature in the Lesser Caucasus, where the number of birds is probably much lower (except in the Dogu Karadeniz or Pontic Mountains in northeastern Turkey). Habitat loss and fragmentation due to unsustainable land use are considered the most significant threat. Poaching and human disturbance among the smaller, isolated populations of black grouse also threaten the species. This species is listed by IUCN as a species for which data are deficient (DD). Protection measures may include creation of small-sized reserves in important habitats for the black grouse.
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Marbled Duck
The marbled duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris) has a scattered distribution in the western Mediterranean (Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, wintering in north and sub-Saharan west Africa), the eastern Mediterranean (Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, wintering south to Egypt) and western and southern Asia (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China, wintering in Iran, Pakistan, and northwestern India). The species sporadically occurs in Georgia, but its status is not yet known. The marbled duck is more common in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran on lowland lakes, and it is adapted to temporary wetlands.
The marbled duck population fluctuates partly in response to annual variations in rainfall. The marbled duck is capable of widely dispersing in search of suitable habitat. It is less dependent on invertebrates and relies more on small seeds (especially Ruppia) than other ducks of the northern Temperate Zone. Marbled duck appears to have suffered a rapid population decline, according to numbers in its core wintering range, largely a result of extensive habitat destruction. Over 50 percent of the duck’s suitable habitat may have been destroyed during the 20th century. Other major threats are poaching and unsuitable water levels at wintering sites. Wetlands are drained for agriculture across its range. The species qualifies as vulnerable (VU A2cd+3cd a) according to IUCN. However, data are scarce and some birds may have relocated to alternate wintering sites.
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White-headed Duck
The white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala) has a wide range, occurring in Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and Mongolia. In winter months, it passes through the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Within the Caucasus Ecoregion, significant populations of white-headed ducks breed primarily in Russia, Turkey, Iran, and Armenia. The duck’s preferred habitats include freshwater or brackish, alkaline, and eutrophic lakes, which are frequently temporary or semi-permanent. Breeding ponds have dense vegetation around the fringes and are generally small or enclosed areas within a larger wetland system. A stable water level during the incubation period is vital for successful breeding. In the Caucasus, one of the most important wintering areas is in Azerbaijan. Wintering birds probably arrive here from Kazakhstan. The white-headed duck is a globally threatened species classified as endangered (EN A2bcde) at the global level by IUCN and at the European level by BirdLife International. The species’ range and population size have declined as a result of hunting and habitat degradation. Another major threat is the variation of water levels at wintering sites. Bird counts conducted in mid-winter have indicated that the population has undergone a very rapid decline of as much as 60 percent in the last decade.
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Caucasian Salamander
The Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella caucasica) is an endemic of the western Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. Its range extends through the westernmost part of the Trialeti Mountain Range, Meskheti, and the Giresun Mountains west to Giresun in northeastern Turkey. It is listed by IUCN as vulnerable (VU B2ab(iii)). Strongly dependent on mountain forests, where it finds shelter under fallen trees, the salamander occurs in the upper reaches of mountain rivers and in small streams (from sea level to 2,000 m). The salamander is an extremely discrete animal, active exclusively at night. The species’ distribution is sporadic – 24 local populations are known across Georgia to Turkey. Based on the distribution of small mountain streams in the Georgian part of the species’ range, however, several dozen local populations are probably located in tributaries of the Kura, Chorukh (Chorokhi), and Kintrishi rivers. One local population usually consists of several hundred individuals. Geographic populations from the watershed of the Kura River (which belongs to the Caspian Sea Basin) and rivers in the Black Sea Basin show fixed genetic differences, and are likely different species which have been isolated for more than five million years. The most significant threat to the salamander is destruction of the animals’ refuges due to extensive timber harvesting. Effective protection measures would include creation of small-sized reserves encompassing the most important habitats.
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Syrian Spadefoot
The Syrian spadefoot toad (Pelobates syriacus) lives in Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Balkans, and the Caucasus. The Syrian spadefoot is an amphibian living in the arid semi-desert and steppe landscapes of the southern Caucasus with a strictly sporadic distribution: there are six small isolated populations in Georgia, four in Armenia, eight in Azerbaijan, and one in Russia. Since the 1980s, the species’ distribution has significantly decreased for unknown reasons, probably due to fragmentation of its range. While the species has not been listed by IUCN, limited efforts to coordinate among the three countries of the South Caucasus could help stabilize the species’ range and avoid further decline of the spadefoot toad.
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Sturgeon
The Caspian and Azov seas are unique in the world in their diversity of species of sturgeon fish (Huso and Acipenser spp.). The seven species of sturgeon considered focal species for the ECP are: Russian sturgeon (A. gueldenstaedtii), Persian sturgeon (A. persicus), bastard sturgeon (A. nudiventris), sterlet (A. ruthenus), star sturgeon (A. stellatus), Atlantic (Baltic) sturgeon (A. sturio), and beluga (H. huso). Russian, Persian, bastard, and star sturgeon, as well as beluga are all listed as endangered by IUCN. Atlantic sturgeon is critically endangered (CR A2d), while starlet is vulnerable (VU A1c+2d). Today populations of all these species are threatened, yet they are still commercially fished. In the Azov Sea, the bastard and Atlantic sturgeon are on the verge of extinction. In the Kuban River, the largest river in the Russian Caucasus which flows into the Azov Sea, the starlet and Azov Sea beluga (H. huso maeotica) have nearly disappeared. The Black Sea is the last global habitat for the Atlantic sturgeon, which is nearly extinct. The Rioni River in Georgia is the only spawning area for the European form of Atlantic sturgeon within the Caucasus. Overfishing and uncontrolled poaching in the Caspian and Azov seas threaten all species of sturgeon in the two seas. When sturgeons swim upstream to spawn, they are also poached or unable to reproduce in rivers that are dammed or polluted. Water levels in rivers are declining due to irrigation and unsustainable water use. Although fishing licenses are issued under specified regulations and quotas, fishing boats invariably take more than their limit. Spawning grounds are protected on paper, but the laws are not enforced. Many of the enforcement agencies are corrupt. If measures are not taken to stop the pillaging of sturgeon in the Azov and Caspian seas, these species will soon disappear altogether.
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Continue to the next page and learn about the Species of Special Concern under the ECP.
Notes:
- The foregoing is a digest of or excerpt from Part 2 of the ECP. The full text of the ECP can be found here
- Descriptions apply to the Ecoregion, and thus include the areas of Russia, Turkey and Iran that form part of the Ecoregion. All of the biomes and almost all of the bio-diversity, however, are strongly represented in the three core countries.
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