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FLORA, FAUNA AND THREATS

Overview / Focal & Targeted Species / Endemic & Rare Plants

Overview

In collaboration with international specialists, the Caucasus region's scientists assessed threats to the ecoregion in the Ecoregional Conservation Plan for the Caucasus (the ECP), published in 2006. This multi-year study identifies key ecosystems, focal and targeted species and other indicators of the of the ecoregion's health. Most of the information presented here is derived from the ECP and from Conservation International’s website.

Threats

The biodiversity of the Caucasus is being lost at an alarming rate. Nearly half the lands in the Ecoregion have been affected by human activities. The plains, foothills, and subalpine belts have suffered the heaviest impact, and only 2 to 3% of original riparian forests remain in the South Caucasus. Most natural old growth forests have been fragmented into small sections, divided by areas of commercial forest, agricultural and developed lands. Only about a quarter of the overall Caucasus region remains in reasonable condition and less than 12% of the original vegetation, including forests, can be considered pristine.

The major threats to biodiversity in the Ecoregion are: illegal logging, fuel wood harvesting and the timber trade; overgrazing; poaching and the illegal wildlife trade; overfishing; infrastructure development; and pollution of rivers and wetlands. These threats lead to habitat degradation, decline of species populations, and disruption of ecological processes – all contributing to the overall loss of biodiversity.

Plants

The Caucasus biodiversity hotspot is home to about 6,400 plant species. Astonishingly, some 25% of these are endemic to the region, including many ancient species, as well. In comparison, Western Europe has only two endemic species of oak – there are 17 in the Caucasus.

Vertebrates

Mammals

There are about 130 mammal species in the region—a high number for a region of this size. Nearly twenty of these are endemic, a number of which are threatened. Several threatened large mammal species are found in this hotspot. These include the Caucasian tur (Capra caucasica), a member of the goat family, and the striking Caucasus leopard (Panthera pardus ciscaucasica), an endemic species of leopard that, incredibly, still roams the eastern border of Europe. Learn how you can help save the leopard.

Birds

There are approximately 380 bird species in the Caucasus. Although only one— the Caucasian snowcock (Tetraogallus caucasicus) —is endemic, the region is a vital stopover for countless migrating birds, and contains over 101 “important bird areas” according to Birdlife International.

Reptiles

Reptiles are represented by an array of 90 species, about 20 of which are endemic. The hotspot is a center of endemism for the lizard genera Lacerta and Darevskia; nearly half of the world’s 60 species are present in the Caucasus, and half of those are endemic. Interestingly, several of these species (Darevskia dahli and D. armenica) are parthenogenic, meaning that there are no males, and females reproduce entirely on their own. Other notable reptiles include the endemic Caucasian viper (Vipera kaznokovi). The venom of this species is useful for stopping excessive bleeding in surgery patients.

Amphibians

There are 17 species of amphibians in the Caucasus, including a few important endemics. The colorful Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella caucasica) is the region's best-known amphibian species, endemic to the West Caucasus of Georgia and Turkey. One of the hotspot’s most remarkable amphibians is the Gorgan salamander (Batrachuperus gorganensis), which numbers only about 100 breeding adults.

Freshwater Fishes

The region has more than 125 fish species, about a dozen of which are endemic. Among the most interesting species are three lampreys: Caspiomyzon wagneri, Eudontomyzon mariae and Lampetra lanceolata. Lampreys are ancient jawless, scaleless fish that date back 280 million years, and have the highest number of chromosomes of all vertebrates (164-174). Another ancient group of fish in the hotspot is sturgeon, including the famous Beluga sturgeon (Huso huso), the largest freshwater fish and the source of high-value caviar.

Invertebrates

Invertebrates, especially insects, are quite diverse, and, in the Caucasus uplands, you can observe many examples of varied insect life, including an endemic butterfly (Parnassius nordmanni) and the Rosalia longicorn beetle (Rosalia alpine). There are hundreds of species of butterflies in the Caucasus, with over 100 species in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park in Georgia alone.

Focal and Targeted Species

Focal Species

Focal species, as commonly defined by biologists, are those that fall into the following categories:

The focal species under the ECP have been determined by scientists to meet at least one of the above criteria. Species of special concern are species that should be monitored carefully. For the ECP, a species was given the status of “special concern” if a specific conservation action is required to prevent decline.

Leopard The leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) is the rarest species in the Caucasus,celebrated in many local poems, fairytales, and songs. Widespread throughout the Ecoregion a century ago, the big cat is now near extinction. Recent investigations coordinated by WWF showed that about 35-40 animals still inhabit the Zangezur Range in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Nakhchyvan), the Talish Mountains, and northern Iran. A small population survives in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and Iori-Mingechaur Priority Conservation Area. The leopard is listed in the Red Data Books of Rare and Endangered Species (Red Book) in all the countries in the Ecoregion. The subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN C2a).
Striped Hyena The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is on the verge of extinction in the Caucasus. They live in plains ecosystems, including arid habitats and floodplain forests. Only a few hyenas remain within a very small range in the southeastern Caucasus plains (in Azerbaijan and a small area of Georgia). The species is considered by IUCN as near threatened (NT), and listed in local Red Books.
Brown Bear The brown bear (Ursus arctos) generally occupies mountain forests, but also occurs in high mountain meadows and open plains woodlands. While the brown bear is not included in the IUCN Red List, the total number in the Caucasus Ecoregion is less than 3,000 individuals, warranting protection measures. According to scientists, there are four subspecies of brown bear in the Ecoregion with complicated interrelations and overlapping ranges. Among these, two subspecies (U. a. syriacus and U. a. lasistanicus) are endangered and in need of immediate protection.
West and East Caucasian Turs Turs are endemic to the Greater Caucasus Range and therefore to the Ecoregion, and historically have had a very narrow range—inhabiting only the slopes of the Greater Caucasus Range. The two species are differentiated by their horn shape. Turs live in the high mountains from 2,000 to 4,000 m above sea level. Capra caucasica The West Caucasian Tur (Capra caucasica) is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN A1d+2cde) and the East Caucasian Tur (C. cylindricornis) as vulnerable (VU A1d+2de, C1). Recent data suggests that there are around 3,500 to 4,000 West Caucasian Turs and about 25,000 East Caucasian Turs remaining.
Caucasian Red Deer The Caucasian subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus maral) is one of the most endangered species of wildlife in the South Caucasus, although the subspecies is not listed in IUCN Red List. In Georgia two isolated populations of fewer than 90 deer remain in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, and about 150 deer are left in the Lagodekhi Strict Nature Reserve. Fewer than 600 red deer are left in Azerbaijan in strict nature reserves. Turkey and Iran also harbor small populations of this species. In Russia, several thousand red deer are found along the Greater Caucasus Range. Over the past few decades, deer populations have decreased, but the exact number of deer remaining is unknown.
Bezoar Goat The bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus), or wild goat, is now endangered, found only in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and in the southern portion of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. Today, there are several highly isolated populations of bezoar goats in different regions. Around 1,000 bezoar goats live in Dagestan and about 3,000 in Armenia (Khosrov Strict Nature Reserve, southern Armenia) and the bordering part of Nakhchyvan (Azerbaijan). Small populations live in Georgia (300 individuals) on the border with Russia’s Dagestan. The bezoar goat is now listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde) and in the Red Books of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia.
Gmelin’s Mouflon The rare Gmelin’s – or Armenian – mouflon (Ovis ammon gmelinii) is an endemic subspecies of wild sheep. Today there are no more than several hundred of the animals left in southern Armenia and in the Nakhchyvan Autonomous Republic in Azerbaijan. This species is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde).
Caucasian Chamois The Caucasian chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica) is one of the more remarkable mountain ungulates. Although data on chamois numbers are scarce, it is thought that approximately 3,500 chamois remain in the Kavkazsky Strict Nature Reserve in Russia, and a much smaller population resides in the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain within Georgia and Turkey. This subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU C1).
Goitred Gazelle The goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), or djeiran, remains only in the Kura Lowlands. A hundred years ago, 50-60,000 gazelles roamed the steppe, but by the end of the 1940s, only 5,000 remained in Azerbaijan. The population fell to catastrophic levels in 1961 – only 130 animals were left near the mouth of the Kura River. Conservation measures, including creation of the Byandovan Sanctuary in 1961 and the Shirvan Strict Nature Reserve in 1969, helped save the population from extinction in the South Caucasus. Gazelle numbers in the Shirvan protected areas (Shirvan National Park, Shirvan Strict ature Reserve and Byandovan Sanctuary) grew to more than 4,500 by 2003. A small population of 300 gazelles lives in the Korchay Sanctuary. The goitred gazelle is listed in the IUCN Red List as near threatened (NT) and in the Azerbaijan Red Book.
Pygmy Cormorant In the Caucasus the pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus) is a nesting, migratory, and wintering species. It is globally threatened, classified as near threatened (NT) by IUCN and by Birdlife International as vulnerable in Europe. This bird prefers lowland freshwater and brackish habitats, where fish are easily caught. In the southern Transcaucasia, every lake or body of water covered with reeds has breeding populations of this species.
Imperial Eagle The imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) is predominantly a lowland species, but has been pushed to higher altitudes by human pressures. The eagle is found primarily in the southeastern part of the Ecoregion, in lowland forests along the Araz (Araks), Kura, Alazani, Iori, and Khrami rivers, and in lowlands and foothills westward to the eastern slopes of the Trialeti Ridge. The total global population is estimated at 363 to 604 pairs. In Europe the eagle has suffered a rapid decline in recent decades, and the species is now extremely rare or extinct in many areas. The imperial eagle is classified as vulnerable at the global level by IUCN (VU C1) and endangered at the European level by BirdLife International.
Cinereous vulture Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus), or Eurasian black vultures, feed on carrion and nest in loosely knit groups. Their distribution extends from Spain in the west to Mongolia and Russia in the east. In the Caucasus the species is found mostly in Azerbaijan, in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. In most places, the range and abundance of the cinereous vulture has declined. The cinereous vulture is classified by IUCN as near threatened (NT) globally.
Caucasian Black Grouse The Caucasian black grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi) inhabits areas above timberline in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains, usually at an elevation from 1,500 to 3,300 m above sea level and more often from 2,200 to 2,600 m. The distribution is continuous in the Greater Caucasus, where the population numbers several tens of thousands, but distribution is patchier in the Lesser Caucasus, where the number of birds is probably much lower. This species is listed by IUCN as a species for which data are deficient (DD).
Marbled Duck The marbled duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris) has a scattered distribution in the western Mediterranean, the eastern Mediterranean and western and southern Asia. The species sporadically occurs in Georgia, but is more common in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. It appears to have suffered a rapid population decline largely as a result of extensive habitat destruction. Over 50% of the duck’s suitable habitat may have been destroyed during the 20th century. The species qualifies as vulnerable (VU A2cd+3cd a) according to IUCN.
White-headed Duck The white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala) has a wide range—from Spain to Mongolia. Within the Caucasus Ecoregion, significant populations of white-headed ducks breed primarily in Russia, Turkey, Iran, and Armenia. The white-headed duck is a globally threatened species classified as endangered (EN A2bcde) at the global level by IUCN and at the European level by BirdLife International. Bird counts conducted in mid-winter have indicated that the population has undergone a very rapid decline of as much as 60% in the last decade.
Caucasian Salamander The Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella caucasica) is an endemic of the western Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. The species’ distribution is sporadic – 24 local populations are known across Georgia to Turkey. One local population usually consists of several hundred individuals. Geographic populations from the watershed of the Kura River and rivers in the Black Sea Basin show fixed genetic differences, and are likely different species which have been isolated for more than five million years. It is listed by IUCN as vulnerable (VU B2ab(iii)).
Syrian Spadefoot The Syrian spadefoot toad (Pelobates syriacus) lives in Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Balkans, and the Caucasus. There are six small isolated populations in Georgia, four in Armenia, eight in Azerbaijan, and one in Russia. Since the 1980s, the species’ distribution has significantly decreased for unknown reasons, probably due to fragmentation of its range. While the species has not been listed by IUCN, limited efforts to coordinate among the three countries of the South Caucasus could help stabilize the species’ range and avoid further decline.
Sturgeon The Caspian and Azov seas are unique in the world in their diversity of species of sturgeon fish (Huso and Acipenser spp.). The seven species of sturgeon considered focal species are: Russian sturgeon (A. gueldenstaedtii), Persian sturgeon (A. persicus), bastard sturgeon (A. nudiventris), sterlet (A. ruthenus), star sturgeon (A. stellatus), Atlantic (Baltic) sturgeon (A. sturio), and beluga (H. huso). Russian, Persian, bastard, and star sturgeon, as well as beluga are all listed as endangered by IUCN. Atlantic sturgeon is critically endangered (CR A2d), while starlet is vulnerable (VU A1c+2d).

Species of Special Concern

Lynx Lynx (Lynx lynx) is listed as near threatened (NT) by IUCN. The species is widely distributed throughout forest ecosystems in the Caucasus. However, due its secretive habits and the absence of special studies devoted to its biology in the Caucasus, the exact distribution of lynx is unknown and even a rough estimation of the population size is not possible. Trends in population dynamics are similarly unknown.
Otter Otter (Lutra lutra) is listed as near threatened (NT) by IUCN. This species lives in quiet parts of river currents, avoiding densely populated areas. It is found in all kinds of landscapes, from sea level to 2,000 m. It is vulnerable globally. Trends in population dynamics are unknown. All individual habitats should be listed as areas of special concern.
European Mink European mink (Mustela lutreola) is listed by IUCN as endangered (EN A1ace). This is a small mustelid associated with water. The European mink lives in the plains forest belt of the Northern Caucasus. No appropriate data concerning numbers of this species or main threats are available. All individual habitats should be listed as areas of special concern.
Bats The following group of bats is considered as one species of special concern: Western barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Geoffroy’s bat (Myotis emarginatus) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Schaub’s bat (Myotis schaubi) Endangered (EN B1+2c, C2a, D) Bechstein’s bat (Myotis bechsteini) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Mediterranean horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus euryale) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros) Not listed Mehely’s horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus mehelyi) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Seven bat species’ (Rhinolophus mehelyi, Myotis bechsteini, M. emarginatus, Barbastella barbastellus, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, R. euryale, R. hipposideros) were listed by IUCN in 2002 as globally threatened. Bats congregate in caves and old trees, forming large nursing and wintering colonies, often consisting of different species. Data on the exact distribution of these bats throughout the Caucasus are scarce, although one can suppose that their ranges roughly coincide with forest distribution.
Caucasian Snowcock Caucasian snowcock (Tetraogallus caucasicus) is not listed as endangered by IUCN, but it is an important endemic species for the Caucasus Ecoregion. The species is found in alpine areas of the Greater Caucasus. Unlike the black grouse, the snowcock prefers habitats in dry alpine landscapes (usually over 2,400 m), and is mostly found where there are rocks in the subnival zone.
Caucasian Viper Five Caucasian vipers are treated as one species of special concern for this report: Darevsky’s viper (Vipera darevskii) Critically endangered (CR C2b) Caucasian viper (Vipera kaznakovi) Endangered (EN A1cd+2) Dinnik’s viper (Vipera dinniki) Vulnerable (VU C1+2) Pontic viper (Vipera pontica) Critically endangered (CR C2ab, D) Wagner’s viper (Vipera wagneri) Endangered (EN A1d+2d)   Caucasian vipers are a group of species containing five narrow-ranged species included in the IUCN Red List: Caucasian viper, Dinnik’s viper, Pontic viper, Darevsky’s viper, and Wagner’s viper. Some other species are not included in the Red List despite their very limited distributions. Caucasian and Pontic vipers are attributed to the forest belt, while the other species inhabit subalpine and alpine belts of both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. Exact distribution, population sizes, and dynamics are unknown.
Persian Brook Salamander Persian brook salamander (Batrachuperus persicus) is near threatened (NT) according to IUCN. This species is an endemic of the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran. It is associated with the mountain forest belt. It lives in the upper reaches of small mountain streams. The brook salamander is an extremely secretive nocturnal animal. Its distribution is sporadic: only a few locations are known.
Endemic Fish Two fish species endemic to Lake Sevan are considered as one species of special concern - the Sevan trout (Salmo ischchan) and Gokcha barbel (Barbus goktschaicus). Found only in Lake Sevan, these two species have a very restricted range. Sevan trout occurs in the lake, while Gokcha barbel inhabits only tributaries of the lake. While both species are intensely overfished and threatened by ongoing habitat degradation, neither is not listed in the IUCN Red List.

Endemic and Threatened Plants

Endemics

Pontic Oak (Quercus pontica) Quercus pontica, the Armenian Oak or Pontic Oak, is a species of oak native to the western Caucasus mountains of Georgia, northeastern Turkey and Armenia, where it grows at altitudes of 1,300-2,100 m. It is a small, deciduous tree or large shrub growing to 6-10 m tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm diameter and sparse, stout shoots. Its leaves grow to 10-20 cm long (rarely 35 cm) and 4-15 cm across, ovate, with a serrated margin with numerous small, pointed teeth. The fruit is a large acorn 2.5-4 cm long, produced in clusters of 2-5 together.
Medwedew’s Birch (Betula medwediewii) Betula medwediewii is a member of the genus Betula and is commonly known as Transcaucasian Birch or Medwedew’s Birch. It is a shrub that grows 5-7 m high, and is distinguished by glossy corrugated leaves that turn bright yellow in the fall, long glossy winter buds, and brown peeling bark.
Smirow’s Rhododendron (Rhododendron smirnowii) Smirow’s rhododendron is distributed over northeastern Turkey and Georgia. In the Caucasus Mountains it can be found under pine and rhododendron scrub at 1500-2300 meters on igneous and limestone outcrops often at the edge of spruce forest or just above the tree line. The plant grows up to 4 m tall. Leaves are 5-15 cm long and dark green. The flowers range from pale pink to deep, rose-purple.
Epigea (Epigaea gaultherioides) Epigaea gaultherioides is native to Georgia and northeastern Turkey. It is a small shrub that is typically about 10 to 20 cm tall at full growth. The leaves are evergreen, alternate and simple. The flowers are produced in mid-spring and are small, white or pink, with a five-lobed tubular corolla. The fruit is a dry capsule with numerous small seeds.
Chestnut-leaf Oak (Quercus castaneifolia) Quercus castaneifolia, the Chestnut-leaved Oak, is a species of oak native to the Caucasus and Alborz mountains of Iran. It is a deciduous tree that grows up to 35 m tall. The leaves are 10-20 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, with 10-15 small, regular triangular lobes on each side. The acorns are very bitter, but are eaten by jays and pigeons; squirrels usually only eat them when other food sources have run out.

Rare and endangered

Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia) Zelkova carpinifolia (Zelkova or Caucasian Zelkova) is a species of Zelkova, native to the Caucasus, Kaçkar, and Alborz mountains in the extreme southeast of Europe and southwest Asia. It is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree growing to 20-35 m tall, with a trunk of up to 2 m in diameter. The leaves are alternate, 4-10 cm long and 2.5-6 cm broad, the margin bluntly serrated with 7-12 teeth on each side. The flowers are inconspicuous and greenish, with no petals, and are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a small nutlet 5-6 mm in diameter.

Date Plum (Diospyros lotus) Diospyros lotus, also known as date plum, is a tree that is native to the Caucasus, the Middle East and South Asia, especially from China and Japan. This tree can reach up to 30 m tall in warm areas, but will generally be smaller. Leaves of the date plum are deciduous, and are about 10 - 12.5 cm long. Flowers are small and yellow-green. Mature trees bear edible small fruits in autumn.

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